The Norman Sicily Project

by Masud Ahmed, Fathia Balgahoom, Kenneth Gutierrez, and Jonathan Hoffman

Southern Italy in the centuries leading up to the Norman invasion was a polarizing place. Throughout Southern Italy were a number of communities with distinct identities. We are going to be taking a closer look at three of the more important communities in Southern Italy in the time leading up to the Norman conquest of the region. They are Lombards, Byzantines, and Muslims, all of whom played a significant role in shaping the Southern Italy that the Normans would invade and unify.

We will be looking at Southern Italy and its autonomous nature from 6th century AD to when the Normans imposed their authority on the region at the end of the 11th century. Many believed that this region was underdeveloped and not being used, which just is not the case. In Southern Italy after the invasion of the Lombards, power would be divided by areas belonging to the Byzantine and the Southern Lombards. The Muslim conquest of Sicily in the 9th century would have a large and similar impact to the roles of the Byzantine and Lombards in shaping the Italy that the Normans would go on to conquer.¹

Lombard and Southern Sicily

The Lombards were a Germanic people who found a home in Southern Italy by the 6th century. Their invasion of the region began in 568 and within decades they established a strong kingdom in the territories north of the River Po, Tuscany, and in the two duchies of Spoleto and Benevento. The biggest rival to the Lombards in Southern Italy at the time of their invasion was the Byzantines who already had a lot invested in the region. There would be some tension between the two autonomous regions but by 680 AD the Byzantine empire had concluded a treaty with the Lombards, which seems to have involved a formal recognition of their presence in the region.

Throughout the 8th and 9th centuries, the Lombards would keep their eyes set on maintaining control of territory in Southern Italy. Internal conflicts would pose a threat to their power and a civil war occurred in the 9^th^ century between factions in Benevento and Salerno. The conflict would go on to shape Southern Italy as it had a direct link to an increase in the number of Muslims in the region during the 9th century. Both sides employed Arab mercenaries and hired them to fight on their side during the civil war. Word spread of work in southern Italy because of the conflict and a rise in Arab population ensued. This was one of the most significant consequences of the open hostilities.

Louis II, king of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor, took great interest in the conflict because of its attraction to Arab mercenaries. He most likely would have never paid any attention to this conflict otherwise. In the year 849, Louis helped bring an end to the conflict by dividing the Lombard duchy between the two sides while establishing some degree of stability.² The end of the conflict meant that Arab mercenaries would no longer be in demand.

The end of civil war suggested a brighter future for the region. The Byzantines had been losing interest in Southern Italy and the two factions that were previously at war were satisfied. For a short period of time, the Lombards were seemingly in control of most of southern Italy. Unfortunately for the Lombards in Benevento, however, the Byzantines had rediscovered interest in territories that had once controlled in Southern Italy. From the end of the 9th century into the 10^th^ century, conflicts ensued and the Lombards began to lose territory to the Byzantines.

By the early 10th century, Benevento would become Capua-Benevento and would be ruled as a single entity. The newly formed unit of Capua-Benevento found it difficult to resist the Byzantines. Salerno, on the other hand, seemed to benefit from the conflict. As the Byzantines were by their campaigns to regain their former territories in Capua-Benevento, Salerno flourished. Interestingly, both Salerno and Capua-Benevento managed to maintain stable governments throughout this period, even if many elections were rigged to ensure that the Lombards would retain power.

From the 6th century until the start of the 11th century, the Lombards exercised significant power in Southern Italy and strongly influenced the region the Normans would ultimately take over. Salerno was a town that was well-bonded with traditional structures and it remained prosperous during Southern Italy’s feud with Emperor Otto I. The Lombards had their own system of law; in fact, in Southern Italy it was one of the two major legal systems – the other being Roman Law. In short, the lands the Lombards ruled were politically sound and represented one of the strongest of the autonomous regions in Southern Italy on the eve of the Normans’ arrival.

The end of Lombard rule in Southern Italy signified the end of autonomous rule in the region. By the 11th century, the Normans had arrived and began taking over Southern Italy. When the Normans captured the principality of Salerno, they brought an end to the last Lombard stronghold and an end to area’s autonomous regions.

Byzantine Sicily and Southern Italy

Byzantium's grip on Italy grew stronger during the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries. The Byzantines had to restructure their control over the remaining holdings in the Italian peninsula after the Lombard invasion of the region. The years from 876-1000 were turbulent due to succession problems and Muslim raids, which aggravated internal divisions. This led to the fall of Byzantine Sicily as the island became dominated by Muslim rulers with ties to North Africa. The chaos that persisted in much of Italy culminated with the arrival of the Normans. The effect of the Norman Conquest on Byzantine Italy resulted in its separation from the Byzantine heartland. This led to the eventual decline of Byzantine culture and influence in Italy.

By the end of the seventh century, the Byzantine regions of Italy had been through an entire century of turmoil. Following the Lombard invasions, the Byzantines militarized their remaining territories, concentrating land in the military and handing it to the Exarch of Ravenna and his dukes. This was accomplished at the local and regional levels, with the final phase being the establishment of military strongholds.³ With the inclusion of eastern clerics and artists throughout the kingdom of Italy, rather than just in Rome, Byzantine influence grew after the Lombards were formally recognized in 680. Eight of the nine pontiffs who sat in St. Peter between 676 and 715 were Greek, Syrian, or Sicilian. The emperor sought the assistance of the pope because political and religious stability depended on it. Since that meant imperial authority in Rome, Rome enjoyed further prestige from this association. Resistance against the Lombards was successful and was accomplished by placing power in the hands of local elites from imperial garrison units. Threats from the Arabs, Bulgars, and Slavs weakened the empire, making the role of the eastern exarch less important. The conversion of the Lombards from barbarians to Romanized Catholics weakened the loyalty given to the empire.⁴

The Duchy of Naples included the Bay of Naples' coasts and islands, as well as the inland Terra di Lavoro and the towns of Sorrento, Amalfi, and Gaeta. Its institutions followed the traditional Italian model, with power and wealth concentrated in a military-based elite. Naples' allegiance to the empire was greater than that of the northern provinces. The need for imperial help was due to its maritime relations with the east and the need for imperial protection against the ever-present threat of Lombard Benevento. The fall of Ravenna in 751 had little impact on the duchy since it had fallen under the authority of the strategos of the theme of Sicily. The Arab invasion of Sicily in 827 was the turning point in the detachment of Naples from the empire. In 835, Duke Andrew employed Muslim mercenaries to battle Prince Sicard of Benevento (833-839), and in 842 and 843, he assisted the Muslims in capturing Messina from the empire. This alliance strengthened Naples, allowing them to sign a crucial treaty with the Lombards in 836. Later, in order to prevent attacks from Muslim strongholds such as Taranto, the Neapolitans strengthened their relations with the Saracens. Byzantium's cultural and economic presence was enormous, according to evidence, and included imports of eastern pottery. Gaeta grew in importance as a communication hub in the north. Gaeta occasionally operated independently of Naples and was forced to change its policies toward Muslims. To the south was the non-Roman city of Amalfi, which was populated by Lombard refugees. It was a naval base by the eighth century, and it was used in wars with the Lombards, Franks, and Arabs. Following a raid by Prince Sicard of Benevento in 839, Amalfi gained independence from Naples under its own leaders. Despite the fact that the Greek aspect was not as strong as Naples' and that its foreign policy was independent of the empire, its trade relations with the east became increasingly important.⁵

Calabria was the name given to a late Roman civilian province that bordered on the Terra d'Otranto. The imperial territory faced a crisis in the middle of the seventh century, with the civilian government dispersing and breaking down as the Lombard dukes of Benevento seized vast regions. This resulted in a late seventh-century institutional reorganization. Due to immigration from Greece and Sicily, this time marked a turning point in both areas' Hellenization. From written history, little is known about the duchy during this time period. The position of the duchy became clearer only after Nikeophoros Phokas conquered Lombard Calabria in 885-886.⁶

In contrast to the upheaval evident in most Byzantine areas on the Italian peninsula, Sicily occupied a more prominent position within the imperial plans beginning in the seventh century. The island of Sicily rose to prominence as a naval base for countering Muslim advances from North Africa. In the early 690s, Justinian III turned it into a theme. Its strategos came to rule over imperial territories in southern Italy, and after the exarchal government fell in 751, he became a key figure in negotiations with the Franks, Lombards, and the papacy. The influx of officials and soldiers from the east quickened the Hellenization process. Emperor Leo III was able to realize the island's economic, political, and military importance. Sicily was one of the regions that was transferred to the patriarchal authority of Constantinople. Due to this, the Latin element disappeared and the process of Hellenization was reinforced. Nonetheless, by the eighth century, unrest was on the rise. One reason for this was the downturn in the economy. The increasing number of Arab raids had a detrimental impact on the island’s prosperity.⁷

Sicily, unlike its mainland counterparts such as Ravenna, Rome, and Naples, lacked a central power base and an independent military elite. As a result, the populace's response to the upheavals of the 820s was varied and, in some respects, passive. A largely Arab army landed in the western port of Mazara in June 827 and defeated the Byzantine strategos Plato soon after. After defeating Palermo in 831, Cefalù in 857, and Enna in 859, the Arabs gradually expanded their influence over the island. The critical misfortune occurred when the capital Syracuse collapsed after a nine-month siege, and the city's population was massacred.⁸

Byzantium's status in Italy had shifted dramatically over two centuries, from a precarious position in 680 to the verge of a new era of power and influence in the late ninth century. Traditional imperial rule only worked with the aid of a coherent Hellenization mechanism in the theme of Sicily and associated duchies of Calabria and Otranto. However, in every region, developments were shaped by the decentralization that began in the seventh century, and distinguishing practices and institutions that were more often Roman than strictly Byzantine remained influential. The destruction caused by Arab raids, as well as Frankish political and military failures, bolstered Byzantium's status. The reconquest of most of the Lombard territory in Apulia, Calabria, and Lucania, including Bari and Taranto, retaken in 876 and 880, began a new period of Byzantine dominance in southern Italy.⁹

Around the year 900, there was a significant shift in terms of southern Italy's security and independence from external powers. This transition was brought about for three main reasons. The resurgence of Byzantine influence in the late ninth century, under the governorship of Nikephoros Phokas in the 880s, was the most notable. The Byzantines had retaken most of northern Calabria and consolidated their control over southern Apulia. The second reason was that the areas of southern Italy not under Byzantium's rule were more stable. Third, following the Arab capture of Taormina, the last major Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, in 902, Arab leader Ibrahim ‘Abd-Allah died the same year, effectively ending any Arab advance from Sicily. The system of southern Italy remained largely in a state of equilibrium from 900 onwards. The main problem for the Byzantine government in Calabria and Apulia following 915 was local disillusionment.¹⁰ While there was some back-and-forth between the Byzantines and the Lombards, the Byzantines were able to keep much of the territory they had reclaimed in the 880s. Unlike the autonomous factions in southern Italy, Byzantium was the dominant power. They had more pressing concerns in Asia Minor, so the protection of their Italian possessions was left to the locals. Since neither the Lombards nor the Byzantines were able to make permanent encroachments, the south was mostly at a standstill.¹¹

Amalfi, Naples, and Gaeta, the three duchies off the west coast, were quite different from the Lombard territories. These three duchies' economies were based on trade. Amalfi was the most affluent of the three coastal cities in southern Italy. In the ninth and early tenth centuries, they refrained from military confrontations with the Arabs because trade was so important to them. In certain cases, they even helped the Arabs. Due to their proximity to the Lombard territories, these three territories were almost always under the patronage of the Byzantine Empire.¹² In the 980s and 990s, the Arab attacks resumed. These Muslim raids reached all the way to Apulia. According to legend, Prince Guiamar III welcomed a party of pilgrims from Normandy after this series of raids. He allowed them to stay because he was impressed by their military prowess, and this marked the beginning of the Norman presence in southern Italy.¹³

The Normans left much of the Byzantine infrastructure in place when they first conquered southern Italy. The religious activities of Greek churches were permitted to continue. In the territories, the Normans encountered a Byzantine Italy with a combination of Latin and Byzantine influences. The influx of newcomers from the north into Calabria and Sicily had a major effect on southern Italy, as Hellenic influences were gradually choked. The loss of relations between Byzantine Italy and the Byzantine heartland harmed Byzantine culture. This occurred gradually because the Normans didn't have a strategy of eradicating Byzantine influence; rather, it happened as a result of their invasion.¹⁴

Islamic Sicily

After the prophet Muhammad passed away in 632, the Muslim umma began their campaign to spread both the message of Islam and to conquer land. By 731, the Arabs had successfully reached the Iberian Peninsula by moving westward from Egypt through the Maghreb and conquering much of the land. By this point, the Arabs controlled most, if not all of, North Africa. Towards the beginning of the ninth century (third Islamic century), all of the conquered lands had united and become one empire underneath one universally accepted authority. While each land was still ruled by its individual rulers, they had all agreed upon serving the caliph and every major decision including war had to receive his blessing before they entered or started a war. However, the Islamic nation or umma was both politically and religiously divided with many viewing the caliph in Baghdad as no longer the legitimate ruler.¹⁵ This caused the umma to divide and separate based on their own inner religious issues. Ultimately, this led to many of these territories appointing their own caliphs and pledging allegiance to them instead of the one in Baghdad.

Leading Up to the Invasion

In the Middle Ages, during the 8th to 12th centuries, Sicily was viewed as a coveted possession of Islam and was no stranger to invasions and conquests. Its position in the Mediterranean Sea was seen as a strategic one and it was sought after by many civilizations during the classical period and the Middle Ages. During the ninth century, the Aghlabids (a dynasty of Arab princes ruling the Ifriqiya province) had set their sights on Sicily. During this time, the province ruled by the Aghlabids faced a series of domestic problems including a violent insurrection.¹⁶ While this insurrection was put down by the princes, it created a feeling of residual resentment towards the royals among the army factions. With this feeling of resentment growing, many took advantage of it including the Berbers who felt as though there were clear social and economic inequalities between the governors and the governed.

In 827, Ziyat Allah had been contacted by Euphemius, a rogue admiral in the Byzantine empire, who told him that Byzantine forces were holding some Arab soldiers hostage. If this were true, it would break the peace treaty the Aghlabids and Byzantines had signed together. The only catch was that Ziyat Allah had to help Euphemius overthrow his enemies within the Byzantine forces. When presented with this idea, he had to keep in mind the host of domestic issues happening around it, especially the feeling of resentment towards the elite in society. But he understood that engaging in war with the Byzantines would help shift the focus away from the slew of domestic problems he had going on. Ziyat Allah also understood that Sicily would bring some exciting new prospects including a renewed commercial success as well as military ventures. By invading Sicily, it would give the army some work to do and keep them away from the rebellion that was growing. Keeping all of this in mind, Ziyat Allah decided to invade the island.

The Invasion

Sicily was heavily guarded and considered a prized possession by its current rulers, so it was understandable that the invasion met with strong resistance. In fact, in the beginning, Muslim forces lost the majority of the battles that they had fought in. However, when they did enter battle, they were able to patch up lingering differences which led to Constantinople sending reinforcements to help the Arabs invade Sicily. Without these reinforcements, their conquest wouldn’t have been as successful as it was. In short, internal dissention in the Byzantine Empire played an important role in the Arab conquest of Sicily.

During the invasion, there were definitely visible differences in both independence and leadership within the armies. These differences would lead to a strained relationship between the Muslims in Sicily versus the ones in North Africa. Death was often common in these conquests and many military leaders would die in battle. When these leaders died, the army selected their successors, which the leaders in North Africa didn’t like. This practice became a point of contention between the two groups. If a military leader was chosen and sent by the leaders in North Africa, there was a chance that the new leader would be rejected, which speaks to the growing independent thinking among the troops.

During the invasion of Sicily, the Muslim troops were able to capture territories that were key to the Byzantine Empire, which led to their ultimate victory. The first key city the Muslims were able to capture was Palermo. The capture of Palermo led to the establishment of a Muslim capital in Sicily and its vicinity to the ocean helped it gradually develop into an urban center along with the other already established Muslim centers. Another key city the Muslims were able to capture was Castrogiovanni. This city was where Byzantine headquarters were located. Once it had been captured, Muslim armies had pressed on eastward, a path that eventually led to the downfall of Byzantine Sicily.

Muslim Sicily

There was a growing divide between the Muslims living in Sicily and the rulers in the Ifriqiyan province. Many groups tried to take advantage of this, including the Fatimids. The Fatimids were a group of Shiites who claimed to be descendants of Fatima and Ali. The Fatimids called for economic, social, and religious reform and addressed concerns regarding Aghalbid rule.¹⁷ Understanding the current political climate they were in, they were able to use the Aghlabids’ corruption and abuse of power to their advantage and succeeded in stifling the Aghlabids’ last attempt at reform.

Once they were thrust into power, the Fatimids were able to maintain the Aghalbid-Sicilian jihad conquest and used this to their advantage. They were also able to manipulate the use of jihad in order to serve their own interests. They were able to accomplish this in three ways. Since the Fatimids were ruling a majority Sunni area, they were conscious enough to give credit to the Sunni caliph whenever there was a Muslim victory in Sicily.

They had also praised the Sicilian Muslims and promised to continue supporting their campaign in Sicily. This made sure that they kept the Sicilian Muslims happy, which allowed the Fatimids to stay in power. Finally, they appealed to the Sicilians due to their anti-Aghlabid campaign. By doing so, it allowed the Sicilian Muslims to see that the Fatimids were the opposite of their previous rulers, which helped the Fatimids establish a Shi’ite caliph. While their rule was not illegitimate, it had an impact on Sicily’s Muslim community, who in response held elections to select their own rulers.

In 912, Sicilian Muslims did just that when they elected Ibn Qurhub as their ruler. Ibn Qurhab was initially hesitant to accept the position to rule and only did so when he received the full support of both the Fatimids and the Aghlabids. During his rule, he raided Christian towns and even created tensions between the Fatimids and the Aghlabids by swearing allegiance to the caliph in Baghdad. This conflict resulted in his death in 914.

During the Kalbid period in Sicily (948-1053), Muslims succeeded in completing a jihad campaign and this provided some political and social stability. During this period, there was evidence of a shift in focus from a jihadist campaign to active support for culture and learning. This is evident from the Sicilian works of Islamic jurisprudence which helped confirm the island’s connection to North Africa. There were also works focusing on the Arabic language and its subfields, opening up the possibility for language studies. It also led to the field of poetry coming in at a rapid pace.

After this growth and stability came a decline with the rule of Jafar Ibn Yusuf in 1014. During his rule, his own brother rebelled with the help of slaves and Berbers, which led to the expulsion of all Berbers from the island. There were rumors of misconduct surrounding Ibn Yusuf and, seeing the chaos that ensued during this rule, the Zirid princes decided that it was an opportunity to rip control away from the Fatimids.¹⁸ Under their rule, Sicily was able to thrive once again. The Zirid princes helped bring military and political prestige both in Sicily and their own court. They also allowed for co-existence and interdependence between the province and the motherland which was not an option with other rules. By ruling Sicily, they were also given ample opportunity of wealth in terms of both land and resources it provided. It also opened up new trading avenues and routes to gain more capital.

Final Days of Arab Sicily

The Arabs contributed much to the formation of Sicily and, thanks to them, Sicily became powerful in that era. The Arabs came to Sicily and, in the beginning, there was a great deal of prosperity and a relatively peaceful coexistence with other religions and ethnic groups. The Normans initiated campaigns of destabilization and took advantage of political fissures that had appeared in the Muslim world. These strategies had a destabilizing effect and enabled them to conquer the island during thirty years of brutal campaigns.

The Arabs brought their innovations and knowledge to Sicily and it shaped it to be a prosperous peaceful era. The island of Sicily was fully conquered by Arabs in the 9^th^century and, with the notable exception of the Orthodox Christian population in the northeast of the island, many Sicilians converted to Islam. Just like the Moors - the Arabs who conquered Spain - they brought an intellectual tradition to Sicily.

Sicily under the Arabs witnessed a growing influence of Islamic culture that emanated from Qayrawān (a town in modern-day Tunisia). The Arabs who became the majority in Sicily wanted to expand their religion into the people and their government. Their control of seaports was critical to communication and trade. They played a vital role in Sicily’s economic prosperity.

The division and resentments between Christians and the Muslim authorities would resume. First the Byzantines failed many times to take back Sicily with many Arab military victories over them. Ultimately, however, the Christians again became the majority and the Muslims community declined. The hostilities with the Byzantine Empire were costly and this helps explain why the island was able to be conquered again in the eleventh century, this time by western European Christians.

The Arab Muslims who ruled Sicily for two centuries would lose control of the island to a group of warlords from Normandy. The Normans were skilled soldiers who were Christians and they would promote the spread of their religion while taking control of the trade routes and communications that had been under Muslim control. As the Normans came to dominate the island, however, an Arabic-speaking Muslim population would continue to exist on the island until 1220, when Emperor Frederick II exiled them to a colony at Lucera, located on the mainland in what today is Puglia.

Conclusion

Each of the three societies discussed in this essay had a significant impact on Sicily and Southern Italy well before the Normans’ arrival. The Lombards were able to create a stronghold on the island and were also able to overcome a civil war that, at least temporarily, resulted in a larger Arab population in the region. The Lombards also enabled certain areas under their control to flourish. The Byzantines, on the other hand, had a huge impact Sicilian culture, which should not surprise us since they ruled the area for a long period of time. One of the most important relationships created at this time was the one between the Byzantine Empire and the papacy. This relationship helped the Byzantines with the invasions from other empires while the pope was able to gain greater influence. The Byzantines also militarized their territories - including Sicily - creating a much stronger island. The Arabs, too, left an important legacy to Sicily by bringing with them, among other things, a rich cultural and intellectual heritage - a tradition that included art, architecture, poetry, language and even farming techniques. the Muslim population but also growing poetry and language studies at a rapid pace.

To conclude, when the Normans arrived in Sicily and Southern Italy, they were fortunate to be able to draw on the experience and knowledge of accomplished societies that had come before them as they created a new state in a diverse, multicultural landscape.