The Norman Sicily Project

I. Society

by Dylan Reddick

The Norman conquest of Sicily and southern Italy (1060-1194) was not accomplished by implementing a divine plan, although the leaders of these Viking descendants believed just that. The warrior-spirited group, who originated from Normandy, France, simply viewed the Mediterranean as economic fodder and obtainable land to integrate as part of their kingdom. More prominently recognized for reshaping the British Isles and their involvement in the early Crusades, the Norman conquest that took place in the Mediterranean is often overlooked. In its early usurpations, the invasion of Norman mercenaries, specifically the Hauteville kin, imposed themselves upon Italian land and caused civil unrest and an unsure future for the region’s inhabitants. Under the reign of King Roger II (1130-1154), the Normans united people who had ties to separate independent civilizations by establishing a kingdom and creating a society that allowed all subjects to prosper, regardless of the contradicting religions and cultures of the time.¹ Sicily, which was mostly inhabited by Greeks and Muslims during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, became a major target for the papacy, which was interested reclaiming the island for the Latin Church.² A Christian, Roger II invaded foreign lands with his Norman counterparts and justified such actions through the claim of restoring what was seen as the Church’s rightful property.³ Reinstating a religious institution to mostly non-Latin Christian subjects proved to be a challenging goal for the King of Sicily, however, great efforts were made to incorporate the local population into the developing society.⁴ The king himself was surrounded by a diverse circle of advisors, such as Abu Abdullah Mohammed al-Edrisi, an Arab who authored The Book of Roger, as well as trusted Byzantine and Muslim subjects who served his court.⁵ The cultural diversity within Roger’s court provides insight into how Sicily functioned as a whole under his control.

Roger II chose Palermo, formerly Muslim Sicily’s capital, as his own place of residence around 1130 and instead of forcefully ruling the mostly Muslim population, he incorporated them into his kingdom peacefully. The city’s reputation grew and it came to be known as a center of mathematics and sciences. Many Muslim scholars, poets, and travelers arrived in droves in search of knowledge. The community even established Arabic as the official language for the sciences.⁶ The king was known for his passion for knowledge and curiosity for the mechanics of society, and by 1140 he provided the mathematicians, scientists, philosophers, and scholars of the world with a state dedicated towards the preservation of intellectual discourse and learning.⁷ With seemingly no limit to his mental capabilities, the son of the Great Count spoke the many languages that accompanied such a diverse island such as French, Latin, Greek, and Arabic.⁸ This profound infatuation with learning separated Roger II from his predecessors and successors and helped shape the island's reputation as a place of immense culture. In the twelfth century, Palermo, now the Norman capital, became synonymous with intellectual life and served as a true representation of the multicultural society that the Normans created.

Considering that the Sicilian Normans were outnumbered by their Muslim and Greek subjects, it was vital to the establishment of their society that they refrain from agitating them. Roger I, who served as the count of Sicily and Calabria before his son, is noted for employing Muslim soldiers in his army and for providing the future king with models for incorporating the non-Latin subjects into Norman society.⁹ Roger II expanded on his father’s methods to demonstrate tolerance towards all cultures. Also, attempting to distance himself and his new Sicily from the unorganized and divided political systems that plagued the island’s past, Roger II instituted new policies that respected other traditions. The Assises of Ariano established a unified kingdom by not abolishing pre-existing cultural practices or laws of the peoples ruled by Normans.¹⁰ This series of inclusive laws was essential to the successful functioning of Sicily’s multicultural society. Not only did this gain the respect of opposing rulers by protecting their local customs and traditions, it encouraged a peaceful coexistence amongst his new territories.

The Norman occupation in the Mediterranean undeniably changed the face of Sicily and Southern Italy. By introducing the nation’s first standard form of coinage, the ducat, they encouraged a unification of Norman territories.¹¹ Usage and acceptance of such a currency supported by the efforts of Greek Christians and Muslim Arabs provides proof of a general approval of Norman rule by their heterogeneous subjects - one that extended beyond Roger II’s reign.¹²

II. Economy

by Emily Cotugno

Palermo was the second biggest city in the kingdom (next to Naples) and was the center of all politics, economy, and culture.¹³ However, it was not always this way. When Norman conqueror Robert Guiscard first found Sicily, he described it as “torn apart.” The city was often left bankrupt at the hands of rulers who did not always take the city’s best interest into consideration.¹⁴ It was not until Roger II established a well-grounded kingdom that Sicily and the city of Palermo started to thrive. Roger II is said to have based his kingdom on “commercial prosperity and efficient administration.”¹⁵ With that being said, he played a major role in commercializing the Mediterranean and building Sicily’s economy.

To start, there is evidence of a financial administration called the duana. The first known dates of the duana date back to 1174. However, there is a strong possibility that Roger II's father, Roger I, implemented a sort of duana system dating back to the early 1060s. The theory is that the duana consisted of 3 offices, the supervising office, the treasury office, and the office of profits. This is particularly interesting because this system itself is said to have helped with the remarkable advancement of the kingdom's economy.¹⁶ This system is relatively complex and was reworked many times as years progressed but, in short, the system was mostly in charge of the taxes on feudal lands. This also provides evidence of a feudal system, although their class / economic system was not specifically titled a “feudal system.” There is brief mention of who occupied land and where. For instance, royals would live on fiefs (or large estates) and other inhabitants of the kingdom would live elsewhere.¹⁷ Different administrative offices of the duana held the responsibility of taxing various regions of the kingdom which most certainly aided the kingdom’s profits. Though Roger II was not the person who put the duana into place, he certainly continued using this financial administration for years in order to maintain a steady profit.

Moving forward to what Roger II was able to do economically for the kingdom, when he rose to power in the early twelfth century, he decided his first order of business was to create a new currency and appointed commissioners to enforce the use of the monetary system.¹⁸ Roger II also used Sicily’s location in the Mediterranean to his advantage. For example, he created naval “tolls'' in order to support his kingdom as well as took control over the Messina Strait, which is a small body of water connecting Sicily to the mainland.¹⁹ Sicily’s location is by no means isolated and is quite centralized in the Mediterranean, meaning they had easy access to trade which alone stood as a “powerful and aggressive economic system.”²⁰

Not much more information on how Roger II helped build Sicily’s economy can be found in the surviving sources. Some information is available for how those who reigned after Roger II either destroyed or built up Sicily’s economy. For instance, William II, who reigned for 13 years after Roger II’s death, was said to have not done much for Sicily’s economy (or the kingdom in its entirety) whatsoever. William II “...time and time again emptied the national coffers on enterprises that brought him nothing but defeat and humiliation” and recklessly spent the kingdom's money by trying to conquer other lands.²¹ It does seem that others who held positions of authority within the kingdom, such as George of Antioch, Roger II’s ammiratus ammiratorum (Admiral of Admirals), levied low, but effective, taxes.²²

All in all, it seems Norman Sicily’s economy thrived the most through taxes, tolls, and easy access to trading routes.

III. Politics

by Samuel Moss

The political arena of Sicily, both before and during the Norman rule over the country, was a constant battle of competing power struggles, wars, and kings doing what they wanted versus what was actually beneficial to their domain. Most of the politics of the time period was dominated by signing treaties after wars, which always ended in the sides either compromising on a solution to end their conflict or with one side dominating the discussions and having more control of the other side. Another way to strengthen political ties during this time was arranging marriages between heirs to thrones around Europe and the Mediterranean countries to ensure peaceful and prosperous alliances for years to come. When famous Norman invader Robert Guiscard first landed in Sicily, he found a Southern Italy that was being fractured by conflicting claims of power over the region by the Pope and the Catholic Church,, two empires, three races and an overwhelming number of smaller power-grabbing groups, such as principalities, duchies and baronies. This included a Sicily that had been weakened for two hundred years under Saracen rule, where the Greek Christian minority had no power, and local emirs continually fought for control.²³ However, over the course of time and history, Robert Guiscard and his descendants created a stable society that enabled the region to flourish. Unfortunately, not every king that Sicily had actually helped the country and there was one who bankrupted the country multiple times with futile wars and conflicts. He was William II, whose time as the King of Sicily saw the resurgence of a foreign policy practice that was dangerous and expensive: capturing foreign lands for the sake of it, without considering the economic and political backlash that he would receive.²⁴ His was a very different approach to diplomacy and foreign relations, one that differed significantly from that of Roger II, who arguably had the most positive impact on the new kingdom.

Yet, even before the reign of Roger II, the planning for a successful state had begun under Roger I, the Great Count. Normans, Italians, Lombards, Greeks, and Saracens would all have a say in the new government that Roger I created, with the official languages being Arabic, Greek, Latin, and Norman French.²⁵ Roger I was definitely ahead of his time when he pursued policies of religious and cultural tolerance. He not only allowed multiple cultures and religions to live in harmony in his kingdom, he built some facets and practices of each religion and culture into the government itself. Roger I laid the groundwork for his son, Roger II, to take over and continue his work of creating a modern-day kingdom for the time, where religious and cultural tolerance were big factors of everyday life.

Roger II transformed Sicily into the kingdom that has been the focus of many historians’ studies. He required that the barons and leading clergy in Southern Italy and Sicily take an oath to him, which outlined both the political and legal systems that he wanted to employ.²⁶ From the very beginning of his rule, he wanted to make clear that he was in charge and that no one was to question his supreme authority. One way he did this was by promoting his political philosophy, which was modeled on Byzantine rule.²⁷ The philosophy that Roger II wanted to rule by was total and complete power and the best way to do that was by ruling as an absolute monarchy. Roger II governed with the idea that kings have a divine right to rule. The monarch was King of Sicily because God wanted him to be. If anyone questioned his supreme authority over the kingdom, it was considered both a religious sin and a crime of treason.²⁸ This absolute monarchical political philosophy, combined with religious and cultural tolerance and integration, was the basis for the rest of Roger II’s rule, as well as the subsequent leaders of the Norman Kingdom in Sicily, until its unfortunate and untimely end in 1194.

Regarding the subsequent rulers after Roger II, there were four kings who succeeded him. They were William I (‘The Bad’), William II (‘The Good’), Tancred of Lecce, and William III, until the kingdom was taken over by the German emperor in 1194. All of these kings had issues and did not live up to the standards that Roger II set out during his time as the King of Sicily. One problem of William I was that he was not prepared for ruling Sicily. Given that he was not the intended heir, he did not receive very much training in political and diplomatic life.²⁹ As discussed earlier, William II tried to capture other lands for personal gain and, in the process, he drained the coffers of the state, which caused a real financial issue in Sicily, especially since his expeditions were failures and he was always defeated.³⁰ By the time of Tancred’s and William III’s reigns, the kingdom was too far gone to be saved and it was easily taken over by the German emperor, Henry VI, and his wife Constance, who was King Roger II’s daughter by his third wife, Beatrice of Rethel.

It is unfortunate that the Norman Kingdom of Sicily ended so quickly, as the political and ideological grounds regarding religious and cultural tolerance that it was built upon were considered revolutionary for the time. The politics of any nation, especially a new one such as the Kingdom of Sicily, are always on display for the world to see and take advantage of, which is exactly what happened to the Normans in Sicily.

IV. Law

by Kimberly Grecco

Norman legal administration was not fully consolidated in medieval Sicily and southern Italy until Roger II’s reign. Prior to the establishment of a monarchy, there was some legal disconnect within these southern regions. Some provinces followed Lombard law, while others were under the jurisdiction of Roman law.³¹ This division, accompanied by other conflicts, made the beginning of Roger II’s reign quite chaotic. With aspirations of peace and power, Roger II hoped to expand on the legacy his father created and found a unified and stable Norman kingdom under a new group of codified laws.

Although many credit Roger II with transforming the legal landscape of Norman society, his ideas were not uniquely new. The Normans frequently took pre-existing customs or administrations and built upon them, making them their own. Roger’s new law code, the Assizes of Ariano, were no exception as they were modeled primarily after Roman law.³² That other influences were present as well should not surprise us considering that Sicily and southern Italy were at a crossroad of cultures. This intersection allowed for French, Lombard, Byzantine, Islamic, and other influences to coexist alongside Roger’s new code of laws.³³ Coexistence was only permitted if these existing laws did not conflict with the new assizes.³⁴ This system allowed Roger to showcase his power in two ways: he was able to enforce a new law code that was recognized as highly developed for the time period, and was able to display tolerance by allowing certain laws and administrations to remain in the provinces. One way which tolerance was shown was by allowing local officials to retain their positions in the new administration. For example, the Norman administration included numerous Muslims as well as Muslim converts to Christianity who acted as a bridge from the Norman administration to the Sicilian population, which was primarily Muslim.³⁵ The Norman system of government did not only run more efficiently with the use of local officials, their rule was also able to gain a sense of legitimacy. The integrity of the system was maintained while integrating the local population under the new monarchy.

The Assizes of Ariano was drafted by the king in the 1140s.³⁶ One of the main purposes of the assizes was to consolidate power under the crown. In doing so, Roger’s authority became seemingly absolute. He enforced the notion that he was appointed to the throne by God himself, and therefore he ruled through the will of God. Although this concept legitimized his rule as a whole, it applied to the legal realm specifically in the sense that laws were the divine will of God and Roger acted as sole interpreter of this will.³⁷ Judicial power was not separate, but rather concentrated under the Norman monarchy. Roger wielded the power of a king, judge, priest, etc. His multifaceted power drove secular and religious interests to become interconnected. The king became the one who made decisions regarding the rights and privileges of religious officials and became seen as the defender of religion.³⁸ Defying the law not only became an offense against the crown, a treasonous crime, but also an offense against God himself.³⁹ Although power was concentrated in Roger, other positions within the judicial system also played an important role in enforcing the law. Magistrates and justiciars were responsible for overseeing issues regarding criminal law.⁴⁰ The Curia Regis was responsible, in part, for matters of civil law.⁴¹ Despite Roger’s exceptional power, he had an effective bureaucracy which helped him effectively promulgate the laws of the kingdom.

Laws enacted under the Assizes of Ariano addressed multiple areas of life for inhabitants of the Norman kingdom. Marriage, religion, and offenses against the crown were some of the main issues addressed in Roger’s legislation. By analyzing the assizes themselves, one is able to gain a better understanding of the morals and important issues of this society at the time. As aforementioned, religion and state affairs became indistinguishable under Roger II. This was evident in his legislation, as several of his laws address matters of the Church. Assize II is where Roger explicitly grants privileges to the Church and deems the crown as the protector of the institution.⁴² Religion was undoubtedly important to the Normans, who as a group often used religion to legitimize themselves. Other pieces of legislation upheld civil rights. Assize III required individuals in power to treat their subjects with decency and only demand what is considered reasonable.⁴³ Many of the laws touch upon adultery, which appeared to be a sensitive issue. This further alludes to the importance of religion and marriage as an extension of the Church. Considering the assizes solidified the power of the monarchy, offenses against the crown, such as treason, were among the most severe offenses punishable by law.

Maintaining power was important to Roger, who used religion as a means to an end. By promoting individual rights in his legislation, he ensured that his power would go relatively unchallenged. Overall, Norman legal administration, which had been developed from preexisting structures, was among the most advanced of the time period. Power was consolidated under the laws of the Norman monarchs, especially Roger II. This allowed Sicily and southern Italy to transform from an unstable region into one marked by peace and stability.

V. Religion

by Megan Ingwersen

In Norman Sicily, religion was a very important aspect to culture, politics, and society. The Normans were devout Christians. However, when the Normans began their conquests on the island of Sicily, there were many people who came from different religious backgrounds. For example, one-third of the people in Sicily were Byzantine and two-thirds were Muslim.⁴⁴ Sicily in the times of the Normans was recorded as being well known for their diverse and multicultural society. To add to this, the Normans themselves have been credited with religious tolerance towards people who were considered religious minorities, like Jews, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and Muslims. Historians debate whether religious tolerance was actually achieved or whether these fleeting instances gloss over a history of violence towards religions. However, it can be argued that Norman Sicily did achieve some level of religious tolerance between the Norman Rulers and religious minorities.

In the early Norman conquests of Roger I in 1060, it is evident that exchanges between the Normans and religious minorities were tolerable, especially between the Normans and Muslims. In fact, Roger I had to foster relationships with Arabs and Muslims of Sicily in order to capture cities. Roger I began incorporating Muslims into his army.⁴⁵ Roger I did not want to conquer through battles, but rather negotiations. They were greatly used in negotiations with other Muslim cities.⁴⁶ Due to this, Muslims in the cities had some level of autonomy and Roger I gave them a sense of respect. Muslims who lived in villages did not have the same opportunity and had pressure to convert to Christianity instead.⁴⁷ Roger I did not have any Muslim in the central government; that would not happen until William I’s reign. It is speculated whether this exclusion occurred because of religious intolerance or due to the distaste of war with Muslims and the betrayal of Ibn al-Thumna, who was a prominent Muslim ruler who promised Roger I a conquest of his city but betrayed Roger I before he could siege it.⁴⁸ What Roger I did have was a lot of Byzantines officials in the central government, which demonstrates that the Normans allowed Greek influence.⁴⁹

After Roger I’s death in 1101, his son Simon was expected to become the next count. Roger’s wife, Countess Adelasia, served as regent. Unfortunately, Simon died young and in 1105, the future Roger II became the heir to the county. Adelasia continued to serve as regent until 1112. During the regency, the strong influence of the Byzantines was changing to a world more heavily influenced by Muslims.⁵⁰ During this time, Muslim women appear to have set trends for fashion and culture. Christian women were reportedly wearing dresses inspired by Muslim women, speaking Arabic, and wore garments and veils on their faces.⁵¹ Religious tolerance and peace was beginning to blend into Norman Sicily’s culture. However, there was little addition to the central government. When Roger II became king, he was very keen on keeping the same rules from before, though he did employ Muslims as scribes. In fact, Roger II was fond of Muslims and had a circle where he and Muslims scholars and Roger II shared ideas about science and mathematics.⁵²

What was most important to Roger II was coexistence between Normans and Muslims in society and while Roger II did have many acquaintances with Muslims scholars, he still did not add them to his government. What can be said is that Roger II’s era witnessed much more religious tolerance than the preceding period – even though it cannot be considered a total integration of society. What followed Roger II’s legacy was his son William I who saw great changes under his leadership. William I would have Muslims in the government for the first time, but due to his weak reign and reoccurring revolts, violence between Christians and Muslims kept transpiring.⁵³ After William I died, his 13-year-old son, William II, was next in line to become king. William II had deep trust in Muslims; he allowed them to be active in the government and they also worked as his cooks and guards.⁵⁴

With all this said, it should be noted that some scholars believe that what the Normans were practicing was not so much widespread religious tolerance but rather strategic tolerance for political purposes.⁵⁵ It should be noted that the violence between Christians and Muslims never stopped and it drove Muslims and other minorities out of Sicily. However, it can still be argued that the Normans did achieve a level of tolerance because while violence did persist, the progression of religious minorities in society and in culture is very evident. It would be wrong to say that Greeks and Muslims did not influence Norman Sicily. In fact, there are numerous sources – documentary as well as monumental – that demonstrate this. Religion dominated this world and could be an exrtremely divisive force but at times coexistence and peace prevailed. It is extraordinary to think about how the Norman Christians and other religious minorities, especially Muslims, were able to achieve religious tolerance during this time and what kind of world was created because of it.

VI. Art and Architecture

by Emily Cotugno

Architecture:

Before diving into a discussion about Norman Sicily’s art and architecture, it must be understood that religious and cultural identity were not unified categories in the medieval Mediterranean.⁵⁶ As stated previously, Sicily was inhabited mostly by Eastern Orthodox Christians and Muslims, which means the religious and cultural differences were present. Also, geographically speaking, Sicily sits in the middle of the Mediterranean and has been an intersection of sea trade routes. This means the island was visited by many people of many backgrounds.⁵⁷ In turn, this “hybrid” of tradition, culture, and religion made itself apparent in Norman Sicily’s visual language.⁵⁸ Turning our attention to one of Norman Sicily’s greatest works, the Cappella Palatina, captures this hybridity perfectly.

The Cappella Palatina, located in Palermo, Italy, is the royal chapel of the Palazzo dei Normanni (Palace of the Normans) and was constructed under Roger II’s rule. Traditionally, European Norman buildings were designed to be dull, monochromatic, and Romanesque.⁵⁹ However, Roger II was known for being fascinated with the world, its varying cultures, and different traditions.⁶⁰ Being surrounded by people of numerous cultures and religions, Roger II decided to design the Cappella Palatina to represent this mixture of culture and identity while also including traditional Roman design. It is also important to note that Norman rulers tried to create the image that they were “Christian leaders of diverse people.”⁶¹ This, along with geographical location and those who inhabited Sicily / Southern Italy could be reasons why Norman Sicily’s architecture was not built with one specific art style in mind.

As stated prior, the Cappella Palatina was culturally, religiously, and traditionally influenced by those who inhabited the area. Being that Sicily was mostly inhabited by Muslims and Byzantines, the Cappella Palatina artistically contains aspects of both cultures as well as includes some Romanesque features. This royal chapel contains Islamic muqarnas ceilings, Byzantine mosaics that cover the walls, Roman pillars, Roman spolia, or repurposed building stone, and it is believed that walls that are now bare were once covered by Islamic inspired tapestries.⁶² The Cappella Palatina’s design inspiration goes much further than just the inhabitants of Sicily, the design was also inspired by surrounding countries. For example, the chapel's flooring seems to have taken inspiration from Spain and North Africa.⁶³

The Cappella Palatina tells a story through its art. Not only did its creation allow for different cultures, traditions, and religions to come together and allow for them to be represented in an artistic way, it also tells Christian stories through the many mosaics.

In addition to the Cappella Palatina, Roger II commissioned the cathedral of Cefalù which, like the Cappella Palatina, incorporated antique spolia, Byzantine mosaics, and Islamic muqarnas.⁶⁴ However, while the two buildings have their similarities, they also have their differences. For instance, their functions were drastically different. The Cappella Palatina was used as a royal chapel, contained within the Palazzo di Normanni, and barely seen by the public. Whereas the cathedral of Cefalù was available to the public, intended by Roger II to be used as his burial site, and placed in a small village.⁶⁵ The cathedral of Cefalù has more Romanesque features and draws on western motifs more than the Cappella Palatina does.⁶⁶ In terms of scale, the cathedral of Cefalù was much larger than the Cappella Palatina, with the cathedral being 70 meters long and 27 meters wide and the Cappella Palatina being a mere 40 by 20 meters.⁶⁷

Roger II commissioned other buildings during his reign, though none are more significant than the Cappella Palatina or the Cathedral of Cefalù. However, the buildings continued using the cultural diversity of the land as visual inspiration for them. The churches of Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio (often referred to as the Martoranna) and San Giovanni degli Eremiti both exhibit Islamic and Byzantine motifs, seeing that both buildings have Islamic inspired domes and Byzantine inspired mosaics.

Art:

Not much is mentioned about Norman artwork, although one can argue architecture and art are closely tied. However, one of the most famous pieces of artwork from Norman culture is Roger II’s coronation mantle (which, oddly enough, does not appear to have been worn by the kind during his coronation in 1130). A coronation mantle is a garment worn by kings, queens, or by anyone of a higher power specifically during their coronation; it is a symbol of authority. A mantle is also symbolic in the sense that it is meant to be passed down from one ruler to the next

• symbolizing a transfer of power.⁶⁸ Roger II’s coronation mantle is especially significant because it ties in the same cultural diversity as the Cappella Palatina and the cathedral of Cefalù.
  This mantle ties in European, Muslim, and Mediterranean aspects. The shape itself is pulled from Western European design whereas the fabric is made from high quality red silk (which reflects the Mediterranean aspects of textile production).⁶⁹ It is said that the mantle itself was most likely produced by Byzantine craftsmen and later decorated by Muslim craftsmen.⁷⁰

In terms of design, the mantle is pictured to have a palm tree in the center, with a lion attacking a camel on both sides. This is said to represent Roger II’s conquest of Muslim territories.⁷¹ There are also hints of astronomical associations, such as the sun motif above the lion's head, which draws inspiration from Henry II’s star mantle. The design is embroidered with gold and outlined in pearls (which can be interpreted as stars, perhaps another astronomical inspiration).⁷² The edges of the mantle contain Arabic inscriptions which includes a date and an excerpt that proves royal association.⁷³

The mixture of cultures in both Norman architecture and artwork goes to show that the implementation of cultural hybridization goes far beyond visual design, but in production as well.